How the plane turns. Why do planes fly? Required minimum for takeoff

And again we tear the veils from the secrets. But what are the secrets? Everything is transparent, honest, open. Today I will continue the series of educational programs with the topic of how pilots fly an airplane. Against the background of various so-called. "Chainikov" questions that I (and not only) ask, I would like to highlight the "problem of the left hand."

As you know, in the cockpit of a modern passenger airliner there are two steering wheels, if we are talking about a traditional aircraft, or two sidesticks, if we are talking about Airbus or UAC products.

As a matter of fact, the below-quoted comment prompted me to sit down for this entry:

"Denis, do pilots have to be "ambidexters" in airplanes with joysticks? So it turns out that the captain has to control with his left hand? Brrr."

Remarque - side sticks for aircraft control English language are called sidesticks, but in everyday life, of course, they got the nickname "joystick". If you don't mind, I will also call it a joystick.

Here they are in the cockpit of the A320, left and right (photo taken from the Internet)

And here he is in the Superjet. On the left is the same.

But I will not just take and answer this question. As usual, I will allow myself to rant, and I will come from afar.

If you want to take a shortcut and don't want to read the rudimentary principles of aircraft control and the differences between Boeings and Airbuses, you can simply scroll down to the last part.

Many passengers have an opinion that the Commander always pilots. This is not true, because the probability that today the co-pilot will carry you through the air pockets is very high, about 50%, and in no case should it be neglected.

Let's consider the above as a clumsy attempt at a joke, but even there was some truth in it, namely, a 50% probability. Usually pilots divide flights in half. Yes, there are PICs who prefer to perform most of the flights themselves using the autopilot for all its 100%, but there are also those who out of three flights give at least two to their co-pilots.

(I refer to the latter)

Therefore, on average, those same 50% come out. Both pilots should be able to do this, but only the commander has the main responsibility for everything that happens, and therefore he receives a higher salary than the co-pilot (although options are possible in Western companies with their seniority system).

So, in order for both pilots to have more or less equal opportunities for piloting the aircraft, they are given a steering wheel / joystick in their hands and pedals in their legs and a throat microphone on their neck

Pedals both here and there perform the same functions - pilot footrests, they also control the rudder, which is located on the keel of the aircraft. If the left pedal is rejected in flight (namely, move it forward, while the right pedal moves back by an equal value), then the aircraft will begin to turn its nose to the left and at the same time roll to the left. This should be done with extreme caution, because. when the aircraft is steered along the course with the help of pedals, slip occurs on the wing external to the turn. With sudden movements, it can be large, which is fraught with a loss of speed and even stalling, and the load on the keel is completely excessive! Pilots use the pedals in flight only to deal with crosswinds during takeoffs and landings, as well as in some emergency situations.

When the aircraft is moving on the ground by pressing the pedals (now we are talking about pressing the pedal like it is done on cars where the pedals are attached to the floor), the pilot brakes the wheels. Pressing the left pedal will apply the brakes on the left main landing gear, pressing the right pedal will apply the brakes on the right. Of course, you can press both at the same time.

And at the end of the conversation about the pedals - on most aircraft they are also used to control the rotation of the wheels of the front landing gear. True, most often at a small angle - such that it will be sufficient to correct deviations during takeoff or braking on the runway, if the aircraft is moving at insufficient speed, at which the rudder is not yet effective.

Using the yoke or joystick, the pilot can raise or lower the nose of the aircraft (increase or decrease the pitch, if smart), create a roll to the left or right, or both at the same time. Simultaneously with the introduction of the aircraft into a roll, he, according to the laws of aerodynamics, begins to change course in the direction of the roll, and does this smoothly and comfortably for passengers.

(On small slow aircraft with very unswept wings, to perform a coordinated turn - that is, when flying in a bank without slipping onto any wing - you have to help yourself with a pedal, hence the word "pedal" became common, which the pilot replaces the word "fly")

There is a certain difference between the control methods of "traditional aircraft" and modern ones - airbuses and superjets. On the latter, the pilot controls the aircraft through a sieve of computer laws, which puts the final point in determining exactly how much and how quickly the pilot wants to change the parameters of the aircraft's movement in space. And according to special laws, he either obeys the timid desire of the pilot, or does not allow the especially brave to perform a barrel roll or other aerobatics.

At the same time, by deflecting the joystick, the pilot sets the roll and pitch with which he wants to fly, after which he can stop playing, and the plane will fly with these angles, and the joystick itself will stick out neutrally.

On traditional aircraft, the degree of influence of the computer on the decisions of the pilots is not so pronounced, so if desired, the pilot of a B737 or even a huge 747 can try to perform a combat turn or at least a roll. True, this is a very, very stupid idea, even more idiotic than drifting on a KAMAZ truck engaged in logging.

Maneuvering such aircraft is still an art that takes some time to master, because. the desired parameters (roll, pitch) during the maneuver, the pilot has to maintain himself and corrective actions have to be done constantly. In a turbulent atmosphere, plus even when the engine operation mode is changed, the aircraft tends to show the pilot the “tongue”, dodge and get away from the desired parameters ... and if the pilot does not nip this in the bud, then he will again have to collect the arrows in a heap.

Experienced pilots develop a special sense, called the "sense of the plane f @ sing", which will allow you to synchronize the perturbed movement of the aircraft and your reaction to it almost in real time.

Of course, there are certain defenses on the 737, for example, they will fight to the last, if the pilot suddenly wants to throw the plane into a tailspin - turn on the alarm, shake the helm, release the slats, deflect the stabilizer into a dive, increase the load to take the helm "on yourself" , if the pilot is completely dumbfounded and continues to try to bring down the plane.

But this is far from the protection that the domestic Superjet provides. It is precisely designed for idiots in the cockpit, because. only idiots can create a situation in which one pedal is fully deflected, say to the left, and the joystick is fully to the right. The superjet does not cause any worries like this, I remind you that he himself decides how and how much to deflect the control surfaces, and adds thrust to the engines if it gets really bad, and if I want to get so excited on the B737, then I will have to try hard to keep the plane at least would not go down.

Between the two polar "philosophies" there is one more - the modern Boeing concept, implemented on the B777 and B787. The pilot controls the aircraft with the yoke, but only through a computer, which helps the pilot through foolproofing and minor annoyances, similar to those implemented on airbuses.

But with all this, Boeing did not want to go all the way, that is, to introduce piloting on the principle of "constantly maintaining a given roll and pitch", so the pilot still has to control the parameters during the maneuvering process, although this will be easier to do than on the B737.

The future, of course, belongs to the "fly-by-wire" concept (fly-by-wire), in which the controls are not mechanically connected to the steering surfaces, all input signals are processed by a computer and the output receives the value that best suits the conditions of the task. This allows you to implement protection against everything and everything at a completely different level than it was done on aircraft of past generations.

In any case, the automatic assistant still complements the pilot, but does not replace him. Cuts corners, but doesn't break new ground.

So, let's sum up the intermediate result. Feet on the pedals hand joystick, arms at the helm.

It turns out that the pilot of the airbus has one hand not involved?

Of course, this is not true! After all, he can hold a spoon with her, because the main advantage of this aircraft is that it has a retractable table! Just imagine how romantic it is - you fly yourself, steer with one hand, and lazily stir the cooling coffee with your left!

Ok, let this be my second clumsy joke, although, again, there is some truth to this attempt at humor. So, gentlemen, in the very first sentence of this part of the record, I wrote not quite the truth, and it concerned ... the steering wheel.

If I fly the plane manually, for example, when landing, then even on my two-handed steering wheel there will be only ONE hand. If I am the Co-Pilot and occupy the right seat, then this will be the right hand, and if I am the Captain in the left seat, then the hand LEFT.

With the remaining limb, I will control the thrust of the engine through the levers that are located on the console between the pilots. There are two of them in my plane, and four in the B747 - according to the number of engines available.

As for the pilot of the A320, I didn’t sting very much about the spoon, because. theoretically this is quite possible (and probably someone has even already tried it). The thing is that on my B737 we usually turn off the automatics that regulate the thrust of the engines to maintain a given speed if we fly manually. So strongly recommend the docs.

And on airplanes like A320, B777, Superjet, the autothrottle is usually always on, regardless of whether the autopilot controls the plane or a person through cunning computers. It controls the speed, and the computer, through the deflection of the rudders, controls the effects of a change in thrust on the aircraft.

Moreover, the Frogs invented their own philosophy, which to this day is a fundamental difference from the philosophy of the rest of the world - with automatic traction control, the engine control levers on the Airbus are in place, while on 737, 777, 787, other aircraft, including the aforementioned Superjet, which in all other respects professes the philosophy of the French - they have feedback, that is, move when the automation is operating, allowing the pilot an increased level of control. The pilot can always "add" or "hold back a little" if he considers it necessary for some reason (this is often required on the B737).

But in any case, the Airbus pilot will keep his hand on the engine control levers on approach to perform one of two simple actions - either initiate a go-around (putting them forward), or before touching, put them back, under the helpful prompt "RETARD, RETARD !" spoken by the electronic assistant.

NOW GO TO THE ANSWER

That is, both the A320 pilot and the B737 pilot, sitting in the left seat, will control the aircraft with their LEFT hand.

So should he or shouldn't he be an ambidexter (a person who is equally good with both hands)?

Answer: don't.

How not to be an ambidexter in everyday driving. No, I understand, of course, that the left hand was created for a mobile phone, and the right hand can turn the steering wheel and turn the poker (and even turn on the turn signals), but such Caesars belong in the circus, not on the road.

A person gets used to everything. It's only difficult at first. Then comes the motor skill and the person performs the necessary movements with little or no involvement of any brain effort.

Without exception, all co-pilots in their training as commanders go through a period of "accustoming", which does not consist only in training the left hand. Exactly the same problems arise with the right one - after all, you have to do a lot of actions in a mirror! And the ores are now on the right, and the autopilot control panel is there. And, believe me, out of habit from this angle, it looks completely different!

I've been through this too, several times in my career, and it started back in flight school. In the notch, you fly most of the flights in the left seat and only a small part in the right, then you fly on the left again ... and you come to the airline, they put you on the right cup.

In my company, for a long time, the induction program for captains included only two training sessions. Now she occupies five sessions of four hours, and I am very pleased with this achievement - just a good time for the pilot to more or less get comfortable in the left seat and not try to reach his left ear with his right hand. So the pilot approaches linear training with certain skills.

In any case, even in the very first flights, the skills gained in flying from a different seat are enough to control the aircraft by changing hands to opposite ones. There is discomfort, increased work stress, but you are able to fly the plane. This discomfort goes to zero as you fly, gain skills, and then there comes a moment when you think that it is more convenient to steer the plane with your left hand, and control the engine with your right hand.

After I flew as a Captain for half a year, they decided to give me permission to fly from the right seat (there is such a practice - to fly with two captains, but one plays the role of a co-pilot). And then I again felt the inconvenience of transplanting and changing hands. Perhaps even more inconvenient than when changing to the left seat, and I do not know how to justify this. But still, the skills available were enough to confidently perform any necessary maneuver, even if it caused discomfort.

This happened already in 2007, and over the years I have changed from one seat to another so often (both as a "co-pilot" and as an instructor) that today I feel absolutely no discomfort in piloting left / right.

But sometimes my hands get confused in a seemingly simple operation - move the chair forward, because. the lever responsible for moving the chair is again mirrored on both chairs.

Another veil, hopefully lifted.

If you are interested in my series "educational program", then you can always open it by the tag of the same name.

And if you are interested in learning something new from this series, which I have not written about yet, please, give me an idea! If she understands for a separate article, then I will look for time to write it!

Fly safe!

Tell us in simple and accessible language: How do planes fly? and got the best answer

Answer from Yotrannik***[guru]
How does an airplane fly?
In the simplest case, the situation can be imagined as follows: an aircraft engine, equipped with a propeller, pulls the aircraft forward. A stream of oncoming air flows onto the wing, flowing around the wing. And it is in the shape of the wing that the secret of the force that lifts the plane into the air lies.
If we look at the wing of an aircraft in section, we will see that its upper part is more convex than the lower one. The bottom one is almost flat. This means that the flow of air around the top of the wing will need to travel a much longer distance than the flow that passes from the bottom of the wing. And for the same time. It is clear that the speed of the flow around the wing from above is greater than the speed of the flow around the wing from below.
From the school physics course, we are familiar with Bernoulli's law, which says that the greater the flow rate, the less pressure this flow exerts on the environment. Therefore, a situation arises in which the pressure from above the wing is lower than from below. Low pressure from above pulls the wing in, while higher pressure from below pushes it up. The wing goes up. And if the lifting force exceeds the weight of the aircraft, then the aircraft itself hangs in the air. Before takeoff, the aircraft must run up the runway and reach the takeoff speed.
The greater the speed of the aircraft, the greater the lift of the wing. Therefore, an aircraft can take off only if its speed exceeds the critical takeoff speed. This speed is not constant, but depends on the mass of the aircraft itself, the fuel filled in and the number of passengers with suitcases loaded into it. The greater the mass of the aircraft, the greater the speed during the takeoff must be developed before the aircraft goes up.
In practice, the aircraft does not climb horizontally. In order to quickly gain altitude and not catch the trees and houses standing around the airfield, you need to lower the tail, raise the nose and rise into the sky at a high angle. In order to control the angle of elevation of the aircraft, a horizontal plumage is made in the tail of the aircraft, equipped with elevators. The elevator is a small platform at the rear of the tail, which can be deflected up or down, obeying the movements of the pilot's yoke. When the elevator deflects up, the lift of the tail unit decreases, the tail drops down, and the nose, on the contrary, lifts up.
When the plane lifts its nose, it seems to be climbing an air slide, sliding its wings along the rise. Climbing a hill is harder than flying horizontally. Therefore, the speed drops, and may not be sufficient for flight. To compensate for the loss of speed, it is necessary to increase engine power, make the propeller spin faster and pull the plane forward more strongly.
But when the elevators are deflected down, the lift of the tail increases, the nose of the aircraft goes down and the aircraft begins to slide "downhill", rapidly increasing speed. Here it is already necessary to reduce the engine power.
The pilot controls the position of the elevator using the yoke. To raise the nose of the aircraft, pull the handle of the steering wheel towards you. To lower the nose, push the steering wheel away from you. In the case of a joystick, respectively, tilt the joystick towards you or away from you.
On the vertical plumage of the tail there is a rudder. By tilting it to the right or left, you can respectively turn the aircraft in a horizontal plane. The pilot controls the rudders with pedals. The pedals also slow down the wheels. The right pedal slows down the right wheel, the left - the left. This helps to turn tighter when taxiing on the ground. Pressing both pedals at the same time slows down the aircraft. For example, after landing.
Wing mechanization is even more difficult. If we shake the yoke or joystick to the side, it is easy to see how the ailerons deflect on the back of the wing. Moreover, the ailerons deflect differently. If you turn the steering wheel to the right, then on the right wing the aileron will deviate up, reducing

Answer from Alexey[active]
The flight of an aircraft is the result of the action of the lift force that occurs when air flows towards the wing. It is turned at a precisely calculated angle and has an aerodynamic shape, due to which, at a certain speed, it begins to rise upwards, as the pilots say - “gets up in the air”.
The engines accelerate the aircraft and maintain its speed. Jets push the plane forward due to the combustion of kerosene and the flow of gases escaping from the nozzle with great force. Screw engines "pull" the plane behind them.
The wing, set at an acute angle to the direction of the air flow, creates a different pressure: it will be less above the iron plate, and more below the product. It is the pressure difference that leads to the emergence of an aerodynamic force that contributes to the climb.
Source: link

Answer from ALIEN[guru]
Bernouli effect - when the plane moves, it cuts the atmosphere of this planet with its wings into a pair of laminar flows, one of which (lower) is denser, and it pushes the device up

Answer from B and x r b[guru]
Hello!
There is such a concept - aerodynamic lift (see fig.), which occurs when any object moves in the air, if this object has a shape that contributes to this (wing, fuselage ...) - this is "peeped" by man from nature by the flight of birds . At the same time, under the wing, the pressure and air density increase, and above the wing, they fall, which creates an upward lift. Accordingly, the greater the speed of the object (in this case, the aircraft), the greater the lift force becomes, and when, at a sufficient air speed, the lift force becomes greater than the weight, then the aircraft goes up, i.e. "takes off", and if less, then the plane "decreases", in equilibrium - the flight goes horizontally. Thus, the flight of the aircraft, its movement, occurs due to the force of the engine, which pushes the aircraft forward, which creates the airspeed of the aircraft. For a glider, such a force pushing it forward is the weight of the glider itself, which leads to the glider "sliding" down along the air flow, and in the absence of ascending flows (which glider pilots are "looking for"), the glider inexorably decreases. The takeoff process of a modern aircraft is divided into certain stages. First, in the starting position, standing on the brakes, all engines are given acceleration to full thrust. When it is reached, the brakes are released and the aircraft begins to "take off" along the runway (runway). When the speed has reached such that it is not too late to stop before the end of the runway, then this is the moment of "making a decision" (yes-no) and if the corresponding decision is made, either takeoff (acceleration) continues, or braking on the runway begins. If the acceleration continues, then when the airspeed is reached, at which the aerodynamic lift force begins to exceed the dead weight of the aircraft, the aircraft lifts off the runway and it is already "flying", starting to climb. All the best to you and feel free to fly by planes, because when you drive along the road in a car, the probability of dying is about 100 times greater than when you fly by plane! Therefore, at the exit to the freeway from one of the American air bases, where the latest types of supersonic aircraft are being tested, for many years there has been a poster: "Pilot! Attention! Danger! - Freeway ahead!".
All the best.

Answer from Wave[guru]
the flow velocity ABOVE the wing is lower than UNDER the wing (well, the wing profile is like this) and it turns out that the air pressure from above is less than under the wing (Bernoulli's law). This pressure is directed upwards, it is called lifting force.
In order to create a flow over the wing, the plane runs up to this same flow. And the helicopter turns these same wings over itself - it also creates a stream. Here.

Answer from ScrAll[guru]
The destruction of the upper surface of the wing leads to the worst consequences ...
The bottom surface is affected to a much lesser extent.
Conclusion - the wing works like a suction cup, or rather the air above the wing.
Look at military aircraft - everything is hung under the wing, and nothing above ...

Answer from Yooslan to planet Earth[guru]
Well done Stas Sokolov....
Just didn’t write where the Stop Crane is located ....)))

Some researchers had crazy ideas - they wanted to fly, but why was the result so deplorable? For a long time there have been attempts to attach wings to oneself, and, waving them, fly up into the sky like birds. It turned out that human strength is not enough to lift oneself on flapping wings.
The first folk craftsmen were naturalists from China. Information about them is recorded in the "Tsan-han-shu" in the first century AD. Further, history is replete with cases of this kind, which occurred in Europe, and in Asia, and in Russia.
The first scientific justification for the process of flight was given by Leonardo da Vinci in 1505. He noticed that birds do not have to wave, they can stay in still air. From this, the scientist concluded that flight is possible when the wings move relative to the air, i.e. when flapping wings in the absence of wind or when with fixed wings.
Why is the plane flying?
The lifting force, which acts only at high speeds, helps to keep it in the air. The special contraction of the wing allows you to create lift. The air that moves above and below the wing undergoes changes. Above the wing it is sparse, and under the wing -. Two air streams directed vertically are created. The lower flow raises the wings, i.e. plane while the top pushes up. Thus, it turns out that at high speeds the air under the aircraft becomes solid.
This is how vertical motion is realized, but what makes the plane move horizontally? - Engines! Propellers, as it were, drill a path in the airspace, overcoming air resistance.
Thus, the lifting force overcomes the force of attraction, and the traction force overcomes the braking force, and the plane flies.
Physical phenomena underlying flight control
In an airplane, everything is based on the balance of lift and gravity. The plane is flying straight ahead. Increasing the flight speed will increase the lift force, the aircraft will rise. To neutralize this effect, the pilot must lower the nose of the aircraft.
Reducing the speed will have the exact opposite effect, and the pilot will need to raise the nose of the aircraft. If this is not done, a crash will occur. Due to the above features, there is a risk of crashing when the aircraft loses altitude. If it happens close to the ground, the risk is almost 100%. If this happens high above the ground, the pilot will have time to increase speed and gain altitude.

If you want to safely (and legally) fly an aircraft, you need to obtain a pilot's license. But if you think you're going to find yourself in an emergency one day, or you're just curious about how things work, knowing how to fly a plane can come in very handy. This task is not easy, and a complete guide will take several hundred pages. This article will help you understand what you will encounter during your first training flights.

Steps

Introduction to the control system

Inspect the aircraft before boarding. Before takeoff, it is important to inspect the aircraft. This is a visual assessment of the aircraft, which allows you to make sure that all parts of the vessel are in working order. The instructor will give you a list of actions that you will need to perform both during the flight and before it starts. It is extremely important to follow these rules. Below we give the basic rules for inspecting the aircraft before the start of the flight.
Check control surfaces. Remove control locks. Make sure the ailerons, flaps and rudder move smoothly and are not obstructed.

Inspect the gas tanks and oil tanks. Check that they are filled to the correct level. To measure the fuel level, you will need a fuel dipstick. To measure the oil level in the engine compartment there is an oil dipstick.

Check fuel for contaminants. To do this, a small amount of fuel is placed in a special glass container and the presence of water or dirt is observed in the sample. The instructor will show you how to do it.

Fill in the forms for the allowable weight on board and for the distribution of the load in the aircraft. This will prevent the aircraft from being overloaded. Again, the instructor will explain to you how to do this.

Check the aircraft body for chips, cracks, and other damage. Damage, especially to propeller blades, can affect an aircraft's behavior in the air. Before takeoff, always check the condition of the propellers and air intakes. Approach the propellers with care. If the aircraft wiring is damaged, the propeller may spontaneously start to rotate, resulting in serious or even fatal injury.

Check emergency supplies. Of course, you don’t want to think about it, but you should always take into account the possibility of an accident. Check the food, water, first aid kit, as well as the presence of a walkie-talkie, flashlight and batteries. You may also need weapons and standard repair parts.

Find the steering wheel. When you take your seat in the pilot's seat, you will see a complex control panel in front of you, but it will be easier for you to understand it when you understand what each of the devices is responsible for. Directly in front of you will be a long lever that resembles a steering wheel. This is the steering wheel.
The steering wheel performs the same role as the steering wheel in a car - it sets the position of the aircraft's nose (up and down) and the tilt of the wings. Try to hold on to the steering wheel. Push it away from you, then pull it towards you, move it left and right. Don't pull on it too hard - small movements are enough.

Locate the gas and mixture control device. Usually these buttons are located between the seats in the cockpit. The throttle button is black and the mixture control button is usually red. In civil aviation, these controls are usually made in the form of ordinary buttons.
The fuel inlet is controlled by the gas button, and the second button is responsible for controlling the combustible mixture.

Find flight controls. Most aircraft have six of them, and they are arranged in two rows horizontally. These instruments show altitude, aircraft attitude, heading and speed (both climb and descent).
Top left: airspeed indicator. It shows the ship's speed in knots. (A knot is equal to one nautical mile per hour, or approximately 1.85 km/h.)

Top middle: attitude indicator(artificial horizon). It shows the spatial position of the aircraft, that is, its angle of inclination up or down, left or right.

Top right: altimeter(altimeter). It shows the height above sea level.

Bottom left: turn and slip indicator. This is a combined instrument that shows the aircraft's yaw angle, roll and slip angles relative to the longitudinal axis (if the aircraft is flying sideways).

Bottom middle: heading indicator. It shows the ship's current heading. This instrument is calibrated (typically every 15 minutes) to match the compass. This is done on the ground or in the air, but only when flying in a straight line at a constant altitude.

Bottom right: rate of climb indicator. It shows how fast the aircraft is gaining or dropping altitude. Zero means the plane is flying at a constant altitude.

Find landing controls. Many small aircraft have fixed gears, in which case there will be no gear lever for landing. However, if your aircraft has a manual shift option, the shift lever can be in any position. As a rule, this is a lever with a white handle. You will use it when taking off, landing and when the plane is moving on the ground. Among other functions, this lever controls the landing gear, skis and floats of the aircraft.

Place your feet on the turn pedals. You will have pedals under your feet with which you can set the turn. They are attached to the vertical stabilizer. If you need to turn slightly left or right on the vertical axis, use the pedals. In fact, the pedals set the rotation about the vertical axis. They are also responsible for turning on the ground (many novice pilots believe that the direction of movement on the ground is set by the yoke).

Takeoff

Get permission to take off. If you are at an airport with a control tower, you will need to contact the dispatcher before moving on the ground. You will be given all the information you need, including the transponder code. Write it down as this information will need to be repeated to the controller before you are cleared to take off. Once cleared, proceed to the runway as instructed by ground staff. Never do not enter the runway without permission to take off!

Adjust flaps for takeoff. As a rule, they should be at an angle of 10 degrees. Flaps allow you to create lift, which is why they are used during takeoff.

Check the operation of the engines. Before entering the runway, stop at the engine check area and perform the appropriate check procedure. This way you make sure it's safe to take off.
Ask the instructor to show you how the engines are tested.

Inform the controller that you are ready for takeoff. After a successful check of the engines, inform the controller about readiness and wait for permission to continue moving along the runway.

Push the mixture control button down as far as possible. Start gradually pressing the gas button - the plane will accelerate. He will want to turn left, so keep him in the middle of the runway with your pedals.
In a crosswind, you will need to turn the yoke slightly into the wind. When you pick up speed, gradually return the steering wheel to its original position.

Yield (rolling around on the vertical axis) must be controlled by the pedals. If the plane begins to spin, use the pedals to straighten it out.

Accelerate. To take off into the air, the aircraft needs to gain a certain speed. The gas must be pressed all the way down, and then the plane will begin to rise (usually for small aircraft, the take-off speed is about 60 knots). The airspeed indicator will let you know when you have reached that speed.
When the necessary lift is generated, the aircraft's nose will begin to rise off the ground. Pull the yoke to help the plane take off.

Pull the steering wheel towards you. This will allow the aircraft to take off.
Remember to maintain climb rate and correct rudder position.

When the aircraft has gained sufficient altitude and the rate of climb indicator is positive (i.e. the aircraft is climbing), return the flaps and undercarriage to neutral to reduce drag.

flight control

Set up an artificial horizon, or attitude indicator. It will help you keep the plane level. If you are out of range, pull the yoke toward you to lift the nose. Don't pull too hard - it doesn't take much effort.
To ensure that the aircraft does not deviate from the horizon, constantly check the attitude and altimeter readings. But remember that you should not look at this or that pointer for too long.

Perform a turn. This is also called the execution of the turn. If you have a steering wheel in front of you, turn it. If it has the form of a handle, tilt it to the left or right. Keep an eye on the direction indicator so you don't lose control. This tool displays a picture of a small plane overlaid with a level with a black ball. It is necessary that the black ball stays in the middle - correct the position of the plane with the pedals, and then all your turns will be smooth and accurate.
To better remember which pedal to press, imagine that you are stepping on a ball.

Ailerons are responsible for the roll angle. They work together with the turn pedals. As you turn, coordinate the pedals with the ailerons to keep the tail behind the nose. Always keep an eye on altitude and airspeed.
Turning the yoke to the left raises the left aileron and lowers the right. In a right turn, the right aileron goes up and the left goes down. Don't think too much about how this works in terms of mechanics and aerodynamics; Now you are learning the basics.

Control the speed of the plane. Each aircraft has engine settings optimized for cruise flight. When you reach the desired height, change the settings so that the engine runs at 75% power. Adjust settings for constant level flight. You will feel that all the levers will move more smoothly. On some aircraft, these settings allow the aircraft to enter a non-torque mode where pedaling is not required to keep the aircraft in a straight line.
At 100% engine load, the nose moves to the side due to the torque generated by the engine, which needs to be corrected using the pedals, so in order to return the aircraft to the desired position, you have to point it in the opposite direction.

In order for the aircraft to maintain its position in space, it is necessary to provide the necessary speed and air supply. If the aircraft flies too slowly or at a steep angle, it may lose the airflow it needs and freeze. This is especially dangerous during takeoff and landing, but speed should always be monitored.

As with driving a car, the more often you press the gas to the floor, the more stress it puts on the engine. Step on the gas only if you need to gain speed, and release the gas to descend without accelerating.

Do not abuse control. During turbulence, it is important not to over-adjust, otherwise you could accidentally push the aircraft to its limits, causing equipment damage (in case of severe turbulence).
Another problem may be carburetor icing. You will see a button labeled "carb heat". Turn on the heating for short periods of time (for example, 10 minutes), especially when the humidity is high, which causes icing. (This only applies to aircraft with a carburetor.)

Do not switch your attention to this task entirely - you need to monitor all the instruments at all times and check for the presence of flying objects near your aircraft.

Set the cruising speed of the engine. When the speed levels off, lock the controls in their current position so that the aircraft is constantly moving at the same speed, and you can control the course. Reduce engine load by up to 75%. If you are flying a single engine Cessna, the recommended load is 2400 rpm.
Install trimmer. The trimmer is a small device on the panel that can be moved around in the cab. Proper setting of the trim tab will prevent climbing or descending when cruising.

There are different types of trimmers. Some are in the form of a wheel or a lever, others are a handle that needs to be pulled, or a rocking chair. There are also trimmers in the form of a screw and a cable. There are also electrical systems that are easiest to manage. The trim settings correspond to certain speeds that the aircraft can maintain. Usually they depend on the weight, structure of the ship, the center of gravity and the weight of the cargo and passengers.

Often, watching an airplane flying in the sky, we wonder how the plane rises into the air. How does he fly? After all, an airplane is much heavier than air.

Why does the airship rise

We know that balloons and airships are lifted into the air strength of Archimedes . Archimedes' law for gases states: " Hand a body immersed in a gas is subjected to a buoyant force equal to the force of gravity of the gas displaced by this body. . This force is opposite in direction to gravity. That is, the force of Archimedes is directed upwards.

If the force of gravity is equal to the force of Archimedes, then the body is in equilibrium. If the force of Archimedes is greater than the force of gravity, then the body rises in the air. Since the cylinders of balloons and airships are filled with a gas that is lighter than air, the Archimedes force pushes them up. Thus, the Archimedes force is the lifting force for aircraft lighter than air.

But the gravity of the aircraft is much greater than the force of Archimedes. Therefore, she cannot lift the plane into the air. So why is he still flying?

Aircraft wing lift

The emergence of lift is often explained by the difference in the static pressures of air flows on the upper and lower surfaces of the wing of an aircraft.

Consider a simplified version of the appearance of the lifting force of the wing, which is located parallel to the air flow. The design of the wing is such that the upper part of its profile has a convex shape. The air flow around the wing is divided into two: upper and lower. The bottom flow rate remains virtually unchanged. But the speed of the upper one increases due to the fact that it must overcome a greater distance in the same time. According to Bernoulli's law, the higher the flow rate, the lower the pressure in it. Consequently, the pressure over the wing becomes lower. Due to the difference in these pressures, lifting force, which pushes the wing up, and with it the plane rises. And the greater this difference, the greater the lifting force.

But in this case it is impossible to explain why the lift force appears when the wing profile has a concave-convex or biconvex symmetrical shape. After all, here the air flows pass the same distance, and there is no pressure difference.

In practice, the wing profile of an aircraft is at an angle to the airflow. This corner is called angle of attack . And the air flow, colliding with the lower surface of such a wing, is beveled and acquires a downward movement. According to law of conservation of momentum the wing will be acted upon by a force directed in the opposite direction, that is, upward.

But this model, which describes the occurrence of lift, does not take into account the flow around the upper surface of the wing profile. Therefore, in this case, the magnitude of the lifting force is underestimated.

In fact, everything is much more complicated. The lift force of an aircraft wing does not exist as an independent quantity. This is one of the aerodynamic forces.

The oncoming air flow acts on the wing with a force called full aerodynamic force . And the lifting force is one of the components of this force. The second component is drag force. The total aerodynamic force vector is the sum of the lift and drag vectors. The lift force vector is directed perpendicular to the velocity vector of the incoming air flow. And the drag force vector is parallel.

The total aerodynamic force is defined as the integral of the pressure around the contour of the wing airfoil:

Y - lift force

R – traction

dΩ – profile boundary

R is the pressure value around the contour of the wing profile

n – profile normal

Zhukovsky's theorem

How the wing lift is formed was first explained by the Russian scientist Nikolai Yegorovich Zhukovsky, who is called the father of Russian aviation. In 1904, he formulated a theorem on the lifting force of a body in a plane-parallel flow of an ideal liquid or gas.

Zhukovsky introduced the concept of flow velocity circulation, which made it possible to take into account the flow slope and obtain a more accurate value of the lift force.

The lift force of an infinite span wing is equal to the product of the density of the gas (liquid), the velocity of the gas (liquid), the circulation velocity of the flow, and the length of the selected segment of the wing. The direction of the lift force is obtained by turning the velocity vector of the oncoming flow at a right angle against the circulation.

lifting force

Medium density

Flow rate at infinity

Flow velocity circulation (the vector is directed perpendicular to the plane of the profile, the direction of the vector depends on the direction of circulation),

The length of the wing segment (perpendicular to the profile plane).

The amount of lift depends on many factors: the angle of attack, the density and speed of the air flow, the geometry of the wing, etc.

Zhukovsky's theorem is the basis of modern wing theory.

An aircraft can only take off if the lift force is greater than its weight. It develops speed with the help of engines. As the speed increases, the lift also increases. And the plane takes off.

If the lift and weight of the aircraft are equal, then it flies horizontally. Aircraft engines create thrust - a force whose direction coincides with the direction of movement of the aircraft and is opposite to the direction of drag. The thrust pushes the aircraft through the air. In level flight at a constant speed, thrust and drag are balanced. If you increase the thrust, the plane will begin to accelerate. But the frontal resistance will also increase. And soon they will balance again. And the plane will fly at a constant, but higher speed.

If the speed decreases, then the lift force also decreases, and the aircraft begins to decline.